Understanding Rasa: The Experience of Emotion in Art The reader of a poem or the spectator of a drama should have the basic receptivity to attune himself  to the level of the poet so that it results in the ‘experience’ of rasa realization (experience of the sentiment). He is known as sahridaya, the connoisseur, whose heart can be at par with the imaginative mind of the poet or dramatist. The question now arises as to what is the locus of the rasa. Is it the character in a drama, like Rama or Dushyanta, or is it the actor on the stage who successfully portrays these sentiments or it is the spectator or the reader? Further, what is this process of rasanispattih (the manifestation of rasa)? There are primarily four theories on this topic and the first one is the Utpattivada of Bhatta Lollata. Utpattivada or Upacayavada is the theory of the production of rasa propounded by Bhatta Lollata, who is believed to have commented upon Natyashastra. Lollata explains that there is a relationsh...

Baldeo Upadhyaya is a well-known writer and Sanskrit scholar of Varanasi. Baldeo Upadhyaya was born in a brahmin family on October 10, 1899 in the village of Sonbarsa in Balia district of Uttar Pradesh. His father was Ram Suchit Upadhyaya, a Sanskrit scholar, and mother Murti Devi. He received his primary education in the village primary school. He came to Varanasi in 1909 and, living with his aunt, began his further studies in the Bengali Tola High School. Next year he returned to Balia and Faizabad where he appeared at the high school examination in the year 1916 and stood fourth in the whole state. He joined the Banaras Hindu University (BHU) and passed the MA examination in Sanskrit. Maha Mahopadhyaya Ramavatar Sharma, a renowned scholar of that time, was one of his teachers. He studied different branches of Sanskrit from renowned scholars like Maha Mahopadhyaya Gopinath Kaviraj, amongst others and passed the Sahityacharya examination from the Government Sanskrit College, which i...

Brahma Siddhanta, also known as Paitamaha Siddhanta, is a treatise on astronomy. It is named after Brahma, often referred to as Pitamaha (grandfather). This system of Hindu astronomy is one of the five parts of Varahamihira’s Pancha Siddhantika (505 CE). The other four parts are Vasishtha, Saura, Romaka and Paulisha. Varaha’s Brahma Siddhanta has to be distinguished from three others with the same title – that which forms part of the Vishnudharmottara Purana, Brahma (sphuta) Siddhanta of Brahmagupta and Brahma (Sakalya) Siddhanta. Brahma Siddhanta of Varaha (628 CE) is a portrayal of Hindu astronomy free from foreign influences. The text speaks of yuga (an eon), cycle of five solar years consisting of five revolutions of the Sun, 67 revolutions of the Moon, 60 solar months, 62 synodic months, two adhikamas (intercalary), 1830 savana (civil) days, and 1960 tithis (lunar days). The cycle of yuga begins with the conjunction of the sun and the moon at the first point of the Dhanishta sta...

Akram Vignan is literally, knowing oneself. The concept of akram vignan (also akram vijnana) was propagated by Ambalal Muljibhai Patel, popularly known as Dada Bhagwan, of Gujarat. His date of birth is not precisely known; he passed away on January 2, 1988. The essence of Dada Bhagavan’s teachings is that everyone should ask himself “Who am I?” and thereby through a process of self-discipline, realize one’s “pure self.” Awareness of the pure soul leads to moksha (liberation). The pure self is the ‘I’ in everyone without the consciousness of ‘mine’ which relates to the body. The pure self is a non-doer. Dada Bhagwan emphasizes that the only thing worth knowing is one’s pure soul. He said, ‘The one who wants to be bound won’t get the opportunity to be free and the one who desires to be free won’t get the opportunity to be bound.” Akram Vijnan has been described as the “Science of Absolutism”. According to Dada Bhagavan, this science was revealed by Rishabhadeva, the first Tirthankara (...

Bhuvana Kosha is a Puranic word denoting ‘dictionary of the universe’. Geography was an essential part of the lives of ancient Hindus. Accordingly, it forms an important section of Hindu Puranas where it is referred to as bhuvana kosha or bhuvana vinyasa (layout of the universe). Rajashekhara wrote an independent work captioned Bhuvana kosha, as we learn from its mention in his Kavyamimamsa. Bhuvana kosha sections of Puranas included the entire globe as it was known to the Hindus centuries ago. Of these Jambudvipa was the most important and was believed to have been divided into nine varshas (countries). Out of these, the southernmost was Haimavatavarsha which was inherited by Bharata, son of Rishabha according to Jaina accounts. This area came to be known after him as Bharatavarsha. Two stages are traceable in the evolution of the Puranic geographical accounts. Markanedya Purana devotes two separate chapters to the geography of what is called Bharatavarsha. The first describes Bha...

The Advaita Vedanta holds the view that man is a complex element of the spiritual element of consciousness which is attribute-less, non-dual, and pure identity, and the material element of the subtle and gross body. Of these, the subtle body consists of the five senses of knowledge, five senses of action, the fivefold vital air, and the mind and the intellect – the two phases of antahkarana (lit ‘inner instruments’ like – mana, buddhi, chitta and ahamkara). The spiritual element of consciousness gets itself reflected in avidya which consists of the three strands of sattva, rajas and tamas, or as a-sat (an absolute nothing), or as both. The reflected image of consciousness in avidya is known as jiva or the self. It forgets its essential nature and this forgetfulness has resulted in a disaster. It falsely identifies itself with the subtle and the material body, performs prescribed deeds and commits interdicted actions, and experiences their fruits by undergoing the never-ending cycle o...

Nalini Kant Bhattasali (1888 – 1947) was an archeologist, art historian, numismatist and writer. N K Bhattasali was born on January 24, 1888 in the village of Nayananda in the Munshiganj subdivision of Dacca District. He graduated from Dacca College in 1909 and obtained his Masters degree in history in 1912. In the same year, his original research on King Lakshmanasena of Bengal and His Era was published in the Indian Antiquary. Nalini Kant Bhattasali began his career as headmaster of Balurghat and Ichapur high schools, and later also served as a lecturer of history in Comilla Victoria College. He made Bengal his special field of study, and in 1914 he presented the paper ‘A Forgotten Kingdom Of Eastern Bengal’ at the Asiatic Society of Bengal. N K Bhattasali took charge of the Dacca Museum in July, 1914. From a meager collection of six ancient sculptures and some coins, he transformed this small museum into an institution of national fame. He explored the countryside of Bengal and ...

Bhava Prakasham is a 12th century CE treatise on Sanskrit poetics by Acharya Sharada. Bhava Prakasham deals with bhavas (emotions) and rasas (sentiments) in poetry. Its author is Sharadatanaya (1175 – 1250 CE), son of Gopala Bhatta of Kerala. Bhava Prakasham consists of chapters called adhikaras. According to Sharadatanaya, kavya and rasa are like cause-and-effect. He agrees with Abhinavagupta (10th-11th century CE), an authority on poetics, when he states that rasa is the soul of poetry, but goes against him when Abhinava insists that rasas must be realized only through vyangyartha or the suggestive meaning of the words and not through their vachyartha or the expressed meaning. Sharada does not give the vyanjanattava or the suggestive sense of the words in poetry as status which is independent of their tatparya – shakti or explicit meaning. According to him, vyanjana or dhvani stands only secondary to the meaning as expressed in words; it is rather the ideas of poetry subordinate to...

Awadhi is one of the dialects of Hindi spoken in and around Awadha, the region around the holy city of Ayodhya. From the 14 th century CE Awadhi language or dialect began to be used in Hindu bhakti literature especially devotional poems. Sant Tulsidas reigns supreme not only among Bhakti poets in Awadhi language but also among all Bhakti poets in general. During is long 126 years of life on earth, he wrote profusely spreading devotion among the masses in their spoken language. His magnum opus Sri Ramacharitamanasa has been received by the masses as one of the central cultural and spiritual texts for well over half a millennium. Tulsidas revived the concept of Ramarajya. He wrote as many as 40 books of verse. But apart from Sri Ramacharitamanasa, his most notable Bhakti composition is Vinaya Patrika – a book of lyrical prayers of the highest order. Pandit Dwarika Prasad Mishra also contributed significantly to Bhakti literature in Awadhi through his long epic poem Krishnayana. This...

Bhaskara Raya Bharati Dikshita is an outstanding Vedic scholar of the 17 th /18 th century. Among the scholars and philosophers of Hinduism, the name of Bhaskara Raya (1675 – 1751/68) of Hyderabad stands prominent. He established the universal prestige of Hinduism after it was energized by Sri Shankaracharya. In his writings, the Acharya upheld Vedas and the Advaitic tradition of Adi Shankaracharya. He was also an authentic interpreter of Sri Vidya Upasana (tantric worship of the Goddess). The Acharya’s father was Gambhira Raya Dikshita, one of the Principal Secretaries of the Nawab of Bijapur in the south, who was himself a great scholar of Sanskrit. At the instance of the Sultan of Bijapur, Gambira Raya translated the Mahabharata into Persian. Since then ‘Bharati’ became a family title. Bhaskara Raya’s first teacher was his own father. As a young learner, he worshiped Saraswati, and had his sacred thread ceremony at Varanasi. Under the care and guidance of his father, Raya studi...

Atmatattvaviveka (also written as Atma Tattva Viveka) is a Nyaya text by Udayanacharya (1050 – 1100 CE). Atmatattvaviveka was published in the Bibliotheca Indica Edition, Calcutta (now Kolkata) in 1939. A summary of the work by V Varadacari was published in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Vol. II, edited by K.H.Potter. Udayanacharya was born in the village of Kariona in Mithila and was a dynamic acharya in the Nyaya system of philosophy. He entered into philosophical disputations with the Vedic, non-Vedic and Buddhist scholars. Atmatattvaviveka has a two-fold aim of refuting Buddhist arguments against the theory of eternity of atman (the self) and of establishing the eternity of the self by an erudite survey and examination of the limitations of the theory of momentariness. Atmatattvaviveka is divided into four sections. Kshana Bhangavada – This deal with the Buddhist theory – according to which whatever exists is momentary. Udayana shows the logical, epistemological and pr...

Bhaumi Chari is earth-bound movements in Hindu classical dance. Charis or Caris, in Hindu classical dance, constitute various movements of feet, claves, thighs and hips performed in unison. A chari is defined as the movement of a single foot, followed by the movement of the body. There are 32 different kinds of charis used in the classical dance repertoire. Sixteen are Bhaumi caris (earth bound) and the others are akasiki charis (space bound). The Bhaumi Cari are used as a source to develop other dance movements, apart from being used in scenes of combat and fights. The akasiki chari (s) are used by characters to depict movements that release missiles or weapons. Abhinayadarpana, authored by Nandikeshwara, enumerates eight kinds of cari (s) and describes them as graceful movements of the limbs, without making a distinction between the earthly and aerial charis. Natyashastra discusses the differences between Bhaumi and akasiki cari in great detail. Both cari (s) are used in nritta (...

Vachaka Shakti is the inherent potency of a word to communicate a referent. The essential nature of an articulated word lies in its power to communicate a meaning. This power is referred to by the word shakti (potency). This communication is known as abhidhanam, according to early Mimamsakas. A relation between a word and its meaning may be either direct or indirect. The direct relationship is termed by Mammata (11th century CE) as sanketa. If the relationship is abiding and direct, it is called Vachaka Shakti. The Mimamsakas hold this power as a natural relationship with the object which the particular word signifies, and is eternal, since they accept the Vedic knowledge texts to be eternal and unchanging. They are called advocates of Nityasaktivada (doctrine of word power as unchanging. The logicians hold that the relation is conventional and is established by the will of Brahman. For them, will of Brahman is Shakti. What is conveyed through Shakti is Shakyarhta or abhidheya or m...

Betageri Krishna Sharma (1900 – 1982) was a Kannada litterateur. He wrote under the pen name Anandakanda. He began his career as a teacher in a primary school and became the editor of two journals, Matru Bhumi and Svadharma. Inspired by the beauty of Kannada Sahitya (literature), he worked all his life to enrich it. His love for literature motivated him to start a literary magazine, Jayanti. He contributed to Kannada literature as editor, poet, short story writer, novelist and dramatist, publishing more than 54 books. His works ascribe the glory of Indian culture in masterly way. The more popular among his poetic works are – Muddana Matu, Arunodaya, Kara Hunnime, Virahini, Odanadi, Nalvadugalu and Utsaha Gita. He published 43 stories in six collections besides writing two social and three historical novels. These are – Sudarshana, Rajayogi   (Historical novel based on Vijayanagara), Ashanti Parva   (Historical novel based on Vijayanagara), Mallikarjuna (Historical novel ba...

Apadana is the taking away, removal, ablation, etc., and hence it denotes a thing from which another thing or object is removed. But in Hindu tradition it is popularly known as a technical term of Sanskrit grammar and is used in the sense of the fifth or ablative case. Technically, apadana or ablation means a noun whose relation to an action is that of a fixed point, from which departure takes place (dhruvam apaye apadanam – Panini – Atadhyaye I.4.24). In Sanskrit, apadana or ablative case is understood from the use of the same with the fifth case-affix, e.g. gramad Ayati ‘he comes from the village’. In this sentence ‘gramat’, is ablative and fifth case-affix is employed. Several spheres of action are treated as apadana in Sanskrit grammar. Some of these are – taking away, removal, ablation, etc. Hence it denotes a thing from which another thing or object is separated. A noun whose relation to an action is that of a fixed point from which separation takes place is called Apadana or...

Bhaujya is a system of governance in ancient Hinduism. It also denotes the oath-taking part of the coronation ritual (Mahabhisheka). This ritual called Aindra Mahabhisheka is described in detail, in the Vedic text of Aitareya Brahmana. The text contains the words ‘samrajyam’, ‘bhaujyam’, ‘svarajyam’, ‘vairajya’ and ‘paramestya’ used in the context of sovereignty over people. There have been interpretations of these hyperbolical and grandiloquent terms conveying supreme power. Some scholars interprets the term ‘bhaujya’ occurring here as a word referring to a kind of constitution or a methodology of governance. ‘Bhaujya’ is derived from the word ‘bhoja’. The Mahabharata, while classifying the different classes of monarchs, mentions bhoja to be one. The reference in the Kharavela inscription describing the rashtrikas and bhojakas with the paraphernalia of sovereignty substantiates this point. The further proof for the term ‘bhoja’ occurring in the sense of ‘governance’ is provided by t...

Bharata, the ancient dramaturgist and musicologist in his Natyashastra, made a four-fold classification of musical instruments into tata (stringed), sushira (wind), avanaddha (covered or fastened) and ghana (solid). The Sanskrit term avanaddham means a drum. Vedic literature contains references to crude earthern and wooden drums covered with the hide or skin of wild animals. The pushkara, mridanga and bhanda vadya of later times and the modern pakhavaj and khol have evolved from the dundubhi of Vedic times. The early Sangam text, Silappadikaram (2 nd century CE) assigns a prominent place to the drummer, as one who enhances the appeal of vocal music. The Ramayana of the Tamil poet Kamban, also talks of several ancient musical instruments including drums like bheri, damaru, jharjhari, jhalli and maddala.

Agama in Hinduism is knowledge texts. The word agama has been used to denote a traditional doctrine or precept, a collection of such doctrines, Brahmana texts and Smritis, a Tantra text or sacrifice texts of Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, Buddhism and Jainism. Agamapramanya of Yamunacharya, which discusses the position of Vaishnavite system of Pancharatra, tries to prove that the system is as valid as Vedas, since both are derived from the divine person, Narayana. Some of the more important Pancaratra texts are Sattvata-samhita, Paushkara Samhita, Jayakhya Samhita, which together form the three gems of the Vaishnavagama. Shaivagamas or Saiva Siddantas were originally pronounced by Maheshwara, Shaivaite agamas, twenty-eight in number, are found mostly in South India. These agamas generally contain a separate section called Vidya-pada, in which the general philosophical view underlying the sect is enunciated. Shaivagamas discuss the main problem of the production, maintenance, dest...

Annambhatta is a 17th century CE philosopher and logician. He has written a primer on Hindu logic called Tarkasamgraha. Every beginner of Hindu logic is familiar with the name of Annambhatta. The lucidity of style, simplicity of expression and good communication skills in simple Sanskrit are the defining features of his works. He hailed from Andhra Pradesh and flourished in the latter part of the 17 th century CE. He was the son of Meligiri Tirumalaraya and the younger brother of Sarvadeva. He was the disciple of Brahmendra Sarasvati, a stalwart of Advaita Siddhanta. He learnt Sanskrit grammar from Pandit Visvesvara and studied Vedanta and Mimamsa under the able guidance of Pandita Visvanatha of Varanasi. He mastered Nyaya, Mimamsa, Vyakarana and Advaita Vedanta and wrote a number of learned commentaries on these subjects. The better known and most popular amongst them are in the field of Purva Mimamsa and Vedanta. He wrote a voluminous commentary called Ranakojjivani on Nyayasudha of...

Sringara Rasa is one of the nine rasas described in the texts of Hindu poetics. This sentiment arises from sthayi bhava called rati. It has two substrata – Sambhoga (love in union) Vipralambha (love in separation) Love in union arises from vibhavas (causes) such as seasons, garlands, ointments, ornaments, beloved people, sense objects, superb mansions, garden visit, looking at one’s beloved accompanied by sports, dallying, etc. It should be represented on the stage through anubhavas such as clever movement of the eyes, eyebrows, glances, graceful and gentle body movements and soft words. Vyabhicaribhavas of this sentiment do not include alasya (laziness), krodha (anger) and jugupsa (disgust). Love in separation should be represented on the stage through vyabhicaribhavas, nirveda (discouragement), glani (weakness), etc. The distinction between vipralambha sringara and karuna (pathos) is as follows – karuna rasa relates to nirapkeshabhava (loss of hope) and arises from sadness ...