Bhuvana Kosha is a Puranic word denoting ‘dictionary of the universe’. Geography was an essential part of the lives of ancient Hindus. Accordingly, it forms an important section of Hindu Puranas where it is referred to as bhuvana kosha or bhuvana vinyasa (layout of the universe). Rajashekhara wrote an independent work captioned Bhuvana kosha, as we learn from its mention in his Kavyamimamsa. Bhuvana kosha sections of Puranas included the entire globe as it was known to the Hindus centuries ago. Of these Jambudvipa was the most important and was believed to have been divided into nine varshas (countries). Out of these, the southernmost was Haimavatavarsha which was inherited by Bharata, son of Rishabha according to Jaina accounts. This area came to be known after him as Bharatavarsha. Two stages are traceable in the evolution of the Puranic geographical accounts. Markanedya Purana devotes two separate chapters to the geography of what is called Bharatavarsha. The first describes Bha...

The Advaita Vedanta holds the view that man is a complex element of the spiritual element of consciousness which is attribute-less, non-dual, and pure identity, and the material element of the subtle and gross body. Of these, the subtle body consists of the five senses of knowledge, five senses of action, the fivefold vital air, and the mind and the intellect – the two phases of antahkarana (lit ‘inner instruments’ like – mana, buddhi, chitta and ahamkara). The spiritual element of consciousness gets itself reflected in avidya which consists of the three strands of sattva, rajas and tamas, or as a-sat (an absolute nothing), or as both. The reflected image of consciousness in avidya is known as jiva or the self. It forgets its essential nature and this forgetfulness has resulted in a disaster. It falsely identifies itself with the subtle and the material body, performs prescribed deeds and commits interdicted actions, and experiences their fruits by undergoing the never-ending cycle o...

Nalini Kant Bhattasali (1888 – 1947) was an archeologist, art historian, numismatist and writer. N K Bhattasali was born on January 24, 1888 in the village of Nayananda in the Munshiganj subdivision of Dacca District. He graduated from Dacca College in 1909 and obtained his Masters degree in history in 1912. In the same year, his original research on King Lakshmanasena of Bengal and His Era was published in the Indian Antiquary. Nalini Kant Bhattasali began his career as headmaster of Balurghat and Ichapur high schools, and later also served as a lecturer of history in Comilla Victoria College. He made Bengal his special field of study, and in 1914 he presented the paper ‘A Forgotten Kingdom Of Eastern Bengal’ at the Asiatic Society of Bengal. N K Bhattasali took charge of the Dacca Museum in July, 1914. From a meager collection of six ancient sculptures and some coins, he transformed this small museum into an institution of national fame. He explored the countryside of Bengal and ...

Bhava Prakasham is a 12th century CE treatise on Sanskrit poetics by Acharya Sharada. Bhava Prakasham deals with bhavas (emotions) and rasas (sentiments) in poetry. Its author is Sharadatanaya (1175 – 1250 CE), son of Gopala Bhatta of Kerala. Bhava Prakasham consists of chapters called adhikaras. According to Sharadatanaya, kavya and rasa are like cause-and-effect. He agrees with Abhinavagupta (10th-11th century CE), an authority on poetics, when he states that rasa is the soul of poetry, but goes against him when Abhinava insists that rasas must be realized only through vyangyartha or the suggestive meaning of the words and not through their vachyartha or the expressed meaning. Sharada does not give the vyanjanattava or the suggestive sense of the words in poetry as status which is independent of their tatparya – shakti or explicit meaning. According to him, vyanjana or dhvani stands only secondary to the meaning as expressed in words; it is rather the ideas of poetry subordinate to...

Awadhi is one of the dialects of Hindi spoken in and around Awadha, the region around the holy city of Ayodhya. From the 14 th century CE Awadhi language or dialect began to be used in Hindu bhakti literature especially devotional poems. Sant Tulsidas reigns supreme not only among Bhakti poets in Awadhi language but also among all Bhakti poets in general. During is long 126 years of life on earth, he wrote profusely spreading devotion among the masses in their spoken language. His magnum opus Sri Ramacharitamanasa has been received by the masses as one of the central cultural and spiritual texts for well over half a millennium. Tulsidas revived the concept of Ramarajya. He wrote as many as 40 books of verse. But apart from Sri Ramacharitamanasa, his most notable Bhakti composition is Vinaya Patrika – a book of lyrical prayers of the highest order. Pandit Dwarika Prasad Mishra also contributed significantly to Bhakti literature in Awadhi through his long epic poem Krishnayana. This...

Bhaskara Raya Bharati Dikshita is an outstanding Vedic scholar of the 17 th /18 th century. Among the scholars and philosophers of Hinduism, the name of Bhaskara Raya (1675 – 1751/68) of Hyderabad stands prominent. He established the universal prestige of Hinduism after it was energized by Sri Shankaracharya. In his writings, the Acharya upheld Vedas and the Advaitic tradition of Adi Shankaracharya. He was also an authentic interpreter of Sri Vidya Upasana (tantric worship of the Goddess). The Acharya’s father was Gambhira Raya Dikshita, one of the Principal Secretaries of the Nawab of Bijapur in the south, who was himself a great scholar of Sanskrit. At the instance of the Sultan of Bijapur, Gambira Raya translated the Mahabharata into Persian. Since then ‘Bharati’ became a family title. Bhaskara Raya’s first teacher was his own father. As a young learner, he worshiped Saraswati, and had his sacred thread ceremony at Varanasi. Under the care and guidance of his father, Raya studi...

Atmatattvaviveka (also written as Atma Tattva Viveka) is a Nyaya text by Udayanacharya (1050 – 1100 CE). Atmatattvaviveka was published in the Bibliotheca Indica Edition, Calcutta (now Kolkata) in 1939. A summary of the work by V Varadacari was published in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Vol. II, edited by K.H.Potter. Udayanacharya was born in the village of Kariona in Mithila and was a dynamic acharya in the Nyaya system of philosophy. He entered into philosophical disputations with the Vedic, non-Vedic and Buddhist scholars. Atmatattvaviveka has a two-fold aim of refuting Buddhist arguments against the theory of eternity of atman (the self) and of establishing the eternity of the self by an erudite survey and examination of the limitations of the theory of momentariness. Atmatattvaviveka is divided into four sections. Kshana Bhangavada – This deal with the Buddhist theory – according to which whatever exists is momentary. Udayana shows the logical, epistemological and pr...

Bhaumi Chari is earth-bound movements in Hindu classical dance. Charis or Caris, in Hindu classical dance, constitute various movements of feet, claves, thighs and hips performed in unison. A chari is defined as the movement of a single foot, followed by the movement of the body. There are 32 different kinds of charis used in the classical dance repertoire. Sixteen are Bhaumi caris (earth bound) and the others are akasiki charis (space bound). The Bhaumi Cari are used as a source to develop other dance movements, apart from being used in scenes of combat and fights. The akasiki chari (s) are used by characters to depict movements that release missiles or weapons. Abhinayadarpana, authored by Nandikeshwara, enumerates eight kinds of cari (s) and describes them as graceful movements of the limbs, without making a distinction between the earthly and aerial charis. Natyashastra discusses the differences between Bhaumi and akasiki cari in great detail. Both cari (s) are used in nritta (...

Vachaka Shakti is the inherent potency of a word to communicate a referent. The essential nature of an articulated word lies in its power to communicate a meaning. This power is referred to by the word shakti (potency). This communication is known as abhidhanam, according to early Mimamsakas. A relation between a word and its meaning may be either direct or indirect. The direct relationship is termed by Mammata (11th century CE) as sanketa. If the relationship is abiding and direct, it is called Vachaka Shakti. The Mimamsakas hold this power as a natural relationship with the object which the particular word signifies, and is eternal, since they accept the Vedic knowledge texts to be eternal and unchanging. They are called advocates of Nityasaktivada (doctrine of word power as unchanging. The logicians hold that the relation is conventional and is established by the will of Brahman. For them, will of Brahman is Shakti. What is conveyed through Shakti is Shakyarhta or abhidheya or m...

Betageri Krishna Sharma (1900 – 1982) was a Kannada litterateur. He wrote under the pen name Anandakanda. He began his career as a teacher in a primary school and became the editor of two journals, Matru Bhumi and Svadharma. Inspired by the beauty of Kannada Sahitya (literature), he worked all his life to enrich it. His love for literature motivated him to start a literary magazine, Jayanti. He contributed to Kannada literature as editor, poet, short story writer, novelist and dramatist, publishing more than 54 books. His works ascribe the glory of Indian culture in masterly way. The more popular among his poetic works are – Muddana Matu, Arunodaya, Kara Hunnime, Virahini, Odanadi, Nalvadugalu and Utsaha Gita. He published 43 stories in six collections besides writing two social and three historical novels. These are – Sudarshana, Rajayogi   (Historical novel based on Vijayanagara), Ashanti Parva   (Historical novel based on Vijayanagara), Mallikarjuna (Historical novel ba...

Apadana is the taking away, removal, ablation, etc., and hence it denotes a thing from which another thing or object is removed. But in Hindu tradition it is popularly known as a technical term of Sanskrit grammar and is used in the sense of the fifth or ablative case. Technically, apadana or ablation means a noun whose relation to an action is that of a fixed point, from which departure takes place (dhruvam apaye apadanam – Panini – Atadhyaye I.4.24). In Sanskrit, apadana or ablative case is understood from the use of the same with the fifth case-affix, e.g. gramad Ayati ‘he comes from the village’. In this sentence ‘gramat’, is ablative and fifth case-affix is employed. Several spheres of action are treated as apadana in Sanskrit grammar. Some of these are – taking away, removal, ablation, etc. Hence it denotes a thing from which another thing or object is separated. A noun whose relation to an action is that of a fixed point from which separation takes place is called Apadana or...

Bhaujya is a system of governance in ancient Hinduism. It also denotes the oath-taking part of the coronation ritual (Mahabhisheka). This ritual called Aindra Mahabhisheka is described in detail, in the Vedic text of Aitareya Brahmana. The text contains the words ‘samrajyam’, ‘bhaujyam’, ‘svarajyam’, ‘vairajya’ and ‘paramestya’ used in the context of sovereignty over people. There have been interpretations of these hyperbolical and grandiloquent terms conveying supreme power. Some scholars interprets the term ‘bhaujya’ occurring here as a word referring to a kind of constitution or a methodology of governance. ‘Bhaujya’ is derived from the word ‘bhoja’. The Mahabharata, while classifying the different classes of monarchs, mentions bhoja to be one. The reference in the Kharavela inscription describing the rashtrikas and bhojakas with the paraphernalia of sovereignty substantiates this point. The further proof for the term ‘bhoja’ occurring in the sense of ‘governance’ is provided by t...

Bharata, the ancient dramaturgist and musicologist in his Natyashastra, made a four-fold classification of musical instruments into tata (stringed), sushira (wind), avanaddha (covered or fastened) and ghana (solid). The Sanskrit term avanaddham means a drum. Vedic literature contains references to crude earthern and wooden drums covered with the hide or skin of wild animals. The pushkara, mridanga and bhanda vadya of later times and the modern pakhavaj and khol have evolved from the dundubhi of Vedic times. The early Sangam text, Silappadikaram (2 nd century CE) assigns a prominent place to the drummer, as one who enhances the appeal of vocal music. The Ramayana of the Tamil poet Kamban, also talks of several ancient musical instruments including drums like bheri, damaru, jharjhari, jhalli and maddala.

Agama in Hinduism is knowledge texts. The word agama has been used to denote a traditional doctrine or precept, a collection of such doctrines, Brahmana texts and Smritis, a Tantra text or sacrifice texts of Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, Buddhism and Jainism. Agamapramanya of Yamunacharya, which discusses the position of Vaishnavite system of Pancharatra, tries to prove that the system is as valid as Vedas, since both are derived from the divine person, Narayana. Some of the more important Pancaratra texts are Sattvata-samhita, Paushkara Samhita, Jayakhya Samhita, which together form the three gems of the Vaishnavagama. Shaivagamas or Saiva Siddantas were originally pronounced by Maheshwara, Shaivaite agamas, twenty-eight in number, are found mostly in South India. These agamas generally contain a separate section called Vidya-pada, in which the general philosophical view underlying the sect is enunciated. Shaivagamas discuss the main problem of the production, maintenance, dest...

Annambhatta is a 17th century CE philosopher and logician. He has written a primer on Hindu logic called Tarkasamgraha. Every beginner of Hindu logic is familiar with the name of Annambhatta. The lucidity of style, simplicity of expression and good communication skills in simple Sanskrit are the defining features of his works. He hailed from Andhra Pradesh and flourished in the latter part of the 17 th century CE. He was the son of Meligiri Tirumalaraya and the younger brother of Sarvadeva. He was the disciple of Brahmendra Sarasvati, a stalwart of Advaita Siddhanta. He learnt Sanskrit grammar from Pandit Visvesvara and studied Vedanta and Mimamsa under the able guidance of Pandita Visvanatha of Varanasi. He mastered Nyaya, Mimamsa, Vyakarana and Advaita Vedanta and wrote a number of learned commentaries on these subjects. The better known and most popular amongst them are in the field of Purva Mimamsa and Vedanta. He wrote a voluminous commentary called Ranakojjivani on Nyayasudha of...

Sringara Rasa is one of the nine rasas described in the texts of Hindu poetics. This sentiment arises from sthayi bhava called rati. It has two substrata – Sambhoga (love in union) Vipralambha (love in separation) Love in union arises from vibhavas (causes) such as seasons, garlands, ointments, ornaments, beloved people, sense objects, superb mansions, garden visit, looking at one’s beloved accompanied by sports, dallying, etc. It should be represented on the stage through anubhavas such as clever movement of the eyes, eyebrows, glances, graceful and gentle body movements and soft words. Vyabhicaribhavas of this sentiment do not include alasya (laziness), krodha (anger) and jugupsa (disgust). Love in separation should be represented on the stage through vyabhicaribhavas, nirveda (discouragement), glani (weakness), etc. The distinction between vipralambha sringara and karuna (pathos) is as follows – karuna rasa relates to nirapkeshabhava (loss of hope) and arises from sadness ...

Arthavada is eulogy – one of the four kinds of interpretive statements in Mimamsa. Arthavada is one of the four parts into which Vedic texts are divided by Mimamsa. The four major parts are – Injunctions (codana, vidhi, nishedha, pratisedha); explanatory proclamations of the object or purpose (Arthavada); Recitations during performance of a sacrificial act (mantra); and Names (namadheya). Arthaveda means a statement which either eulogizes or deprecates, intending to encourage or discourage a ritual – or some part mentioned in the ritual – from being performed. Arthavada is the ethical complement of vidhi or nishedha. For example, ‘let one who is desirous of prosperity, sacrifice a white animal to Vayu, because Vayu is the swiftest of the gods.’ Here the first sentence is a vidhi and the second, which praises Vayu, is Arthavada. Arthavada is of three kinds, viz., Gunavada, Anuvada, and Bhutarthavada. When a text makes a statement which is contradictory to the existing state of affai...

Bhojavritti, also known as Rajamartandavritti, is a commentary on Yogasutra of Patanjali. Bhoja, the well-known versatile king of Malava (1018 – 60 CE), is the writer of this commentary. His other works are on rhetoric, Ayurveda, architecture, sculpture, science of war, and technology. Vritti is defined as a commenatary on the internal meaning of the sutra (aphorism). Bhoja has faithfully followed this dictum in his vritti. He declares in the introduction that he has explicitly explained the meaning of the sutras and avoided unnecessary expansion and therefore the vrittis meticulously explain each term of the sutra. Bhoja has heavily relied upon Vyasabhashya, the most authentic commentary on Yogasutra, and has also consulted Tattvavaisaradi of Vachaspati Mishra, a commentary on Vyasabhashya. However, he differs at times from these two predecessors. For example, while explaining the term Ananta of the sutra 2.47, both Vyasa and Vachaspati state that concentration on Seshanaga or Ana...

Anyonyashraya is the fallacy of mutual dependence in Hindu philosophical discourse. Anyonyasraya is classified as form of tarka (hypothetical argument). Anyonya Abhava means reciprocal negation or mutual non-existence, whereas Anyonyashraya means mutual dependence. Tarka means deliberation on an unknown thing to discern its real nature. It involves seeking reasons in favor of some suppositions to the exclusion of other suppositions. Philosophers resort to tarka when there is a doubt about the specific nature of a thing. According to logicians, there are five kinds of tarka – Self-dependence Mutual-dependence Circularity Infinite regress Indirect proof In all these, the logical structure and the nature of the argument are the same; and the aim is to help verify to validity of an argument. Anyonyashraya reveals the fallacy of an argument wherein two phenomena are mutually dependent on each other. For example, if A depends on B and B depends on A; then, to know A we need t...

Anvikshiki is the science of analyzing what has been said in knowledge texts (agama) and sense experience (pratyaksha). Anvikshiki has been so defined by Vatsyayana in his Nyaya-Bhashya (I.1.1). The term is analyzed as anuikshana or reflection. It thus means logical enquiry and is also called Nyaya. Vacaspati says that the Nyaya system of Hindu philosophy believes in the ‘reasoned analysis of experience’ (Nyaya-varttika-tatparya-tika I.1.1). As a criticism of the possibility and validity of all that claims to be knowledge, Nyaya is the pre-requisite to all methodical philosophizing (Arthashastra of Kautilya I.2). Kautiliya says that anviksiki (logic) is a separate branch of knowledge besides the other three – the Vedas, the science of commerce (varta), and polity (danda niti). Further, it is a light unto all other branches of learning. Manu (Viii.43) and Gautama (ix), in their law codes, prescribe a course in logic for monarchs. Those who mastered the science of logic were preferred ...